Dīpāvalī and Firecrackers: A Historical Account
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| Title | Dīpāvalī and Firecrackers: A Historical Account |
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| Author(s) | Shruti Dasgupta |
| Platform | Bharatiya Jnana Sarita |
| Categories | Society & Culture/Laukikaśāstra & Śaikṣaṇika |
| Year | 2026 |
| Type of Article | Repurposed Advanced |
| Difficulty Level | Advanced |
| +-Summary |
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A cultural, scriptual, and historical overview of the ritual related to bursting firecrackers during Dīpāvalī. Paurāṇika references to the practice… A cultural, scriptual, and historical overview of the ritual related to bursting firecrackers during Dīpāvalī. Paurāṇika references to the practice of ulkā-dāna for rituals on pitṛ, textual and historical accounts of use of firebrands, as well as proof of indigenous chemical understanding of combustive mixtures showcases how fireworks areneither nre, nor just celebratory, rather a continuity of tradition backed by technological and cultural memory.
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Dīpāvalī and Firecrackers: A Historical Account
Introduction
Dīpāvalī, the festival of lights, has a long-standing practice of using firecrackers and lighting dīpas within the Bhāratīya traditions. However, the use of firebrands is neither a form of entertainment nor a recent addition to the tradition. Light and fire, in Dīpāvalī festivities, represent a layered convergence of rituals, belief systems, and applied material knowledge.
Dīpāvalī or Dīvālī, when observed through the lens of itihāsa and Bhāratīya ritual framework, becomes more than just a festival of lights. However, it is not an isolated event but part of a structured cosmological cycle during the Kārtika māsa of the Sanātana lunar calendar. Each ritual and tradition contributes to the layered cultural framework in which Dīpāvalī as a festival needs to be understood.
Purpose and Scope
This article examines the historical, ritual, literary, and material dimensions of firecrackers and firebrands associated with Dīpāvalī and their continuity within the Bhāratīya cultural framework.
Kārtika māsa, as the eighth month in the Sanātana lunar calendar, brings with it several sacred days in Bhārata. Dīpāvalī is celebrated on Kārtika Amāvasyā. Dhana-trayodaśī, Naraka-caturdaśī, and Yama-dvitīyā, along with the pūjā of Devī Lakṣmī and Devī Kālī, are observed across Bhārata in various ways. The Mahālaya Pakṣa, preceding the month of Kārtika, marks the fortnight when the ātman of the departed ancestors descend to earth, and Naraka-caturdaśī marks the day to light the path of the ancestors returning to their realm. Thus, the festival of Dīpāvalī also marks observances related to purification and movement of ancestors (pitṛ).
Dīpāvalī is also known as Dīvālī. The rituals that are associated with Dīpāvalī reflect a convergence of prosperity, purification, and remembrance. Practices such as oil baths (abhyaṅga-snāna), wearing new garments, and communal feasting signify auspicious beginnings and renewal. At the same time, rituals of making offerings to the ancestors (pitṛ) establish a continuity with the past.
Agni or fire plays a central role within the pitṛ-yāna. Light and fire operate as mediators between the terrestrial and ancestral realms. The lighting of lamps (dīpas) during Dīpāvalī reflects this mediatory function. However, this use of light or fire is not confined to static illumination. The Skanda Purāṇa mentions of ulkā-dāna, proving that fire and light were actively projected into the sky as part of the ritual. The use of firebrands to light up the path to the sky suggests a deliberate engagement in the vertical space to mark the path of transition for the ātman of the ancestors.
तुलासंस्थे सहस्रांशौ प्रदोषे भूतदर्शयोः ॥
उल्काहस्ता नराः कुर्युः पितॄणां मार्गदर्शनम् ॥६५॥
(स्कन्दपुराण, वैष्णवखण्ड-कार्तिकमास-माहात्म्य - ९.६५) [1]
tulāsaṁsthe sahasrāṁśau pradoṣe bhūtadarśayoḥ ||
ulkāhastā narāḥ kuryuḥ pitṝṇāṁ mārgadarśanam ||65||
(Skanda Purāṇa, Vaiṣṇavakhaṇḍa-Kārtikamāsa-Māhātmya - 9.65) [1]
भगवान् सूर्य के तुला राशि में स्थित होने पर चतुर्दशी और अमावास्या को सन्ध्या के समय मनुष्य हाथ में उल्का लेकर पितरोंको मार्ग-प्रदर्शन करावें। कार्तिक मास में चतुर्दशी आदि तीन तिथियाँ दीपदान आदि के कार्यों में ग्रहण करने योग्य हैँ। [2]
When the Sun God is in the constellation of Libra, on the night of caturdaśī, men should celebrate the festival of “showing the path unto the Pitṛs” with firebrands in their hands. [3]
The verse from Skaṇda Purāṇa states that lighting lamps (dīpa) on rooftops, along pathways, and in and around water bodies help the ātman of the ancestors find their way back to their realm. Thus, such paurāṇika references to ulkā-dāna establish the use of firecrackers within the ritual systems associated with pitṛ-yāna, or the path of the ancestors. Fire, in this context, operates as a medium of illumination and transition.
The act of lighting the lamps (dīpas) is not merely symbolic of the victory of good over evil, as is stated in the Rāmāyaṇa; it also acts as a reminder of the victory of light over darkness and serves the ritual function of guiding the departed ātmans returning to their realm. According to traditional beliefs, ancestors descend during the Mahālaya pakṣa and return during the period of Dīpāvalī. Dīpas placed at the thresholds, on the rooftops, and in and around water bodies illuminate the path of return. The act of bursting firecrackers becomes an extension of the tradition of guiding the ātman of the ancestors (pitṛ).
Thus, lighting of dīpas and bursting of firebrands are not merely acts of festivity or noise-making, but an act of extending the ritual into the aerial domain. Through firecrackers, the sky itself becomes part of the ritual space, where the upward-projected light works as a guiding force. Thus, on Dīpāvalī, various forms of light and illumination serve both symbolic and functional purposes.
The concept of ulkā-dāna in paurāṇika literature supports the use of firebrands in a ritual context, predating modern forms of fireworks. The descriptions in Skanda Purāṇa indicate that firebrands were used during the nights of caturdaśī and amāvasyā to guide a transitional ritual connecting terrestrial and ancestral realms. Thus, the use of firebrands is not an external addition, but a ritual practice that emphasises illumination, direction, and continuity of tradition.
The presence of fireworks in Bhārata is supported by a wide range of literary, scientific, and historical sources. Contrary to the assumption that fireworks are a later addition or an imported practice, available literature suggests that knowledge of pyrotechnics existed in Bhārata for centuries. The knowledge of Pyrotechnics involves the science of explosion, fire, or smoke using chemicals, and its related substances.
The commentary in ‘A History of Hindu Chemistry’ by Prafulla Chandra Ray discusses the knowledge of pyrotechnics existing in ancient Bhārata. Pyrotechnics is the science of explosion, fire, or smoke using chemicals, and variations in its composition were well-known to the Bhāratīyas. P.C. Ray’s book states that the combustive combination of saltpetre (yavakṣāra), sulphur, and charcoal were known within the Indian Knowledge System.
Texts such as the Śukranīti describe in detail the various compositions of materials that could resemble early forms of explosive mixtures.
सुवर्चिलवणात् पञ्च पलानि गन्धकात् पलम्।
अन्तर्धूमविपक्वार्कस्नुह्याद्यङ्गारतः पलम्॥ २०१ ॥
शुद्धात् सङ्ग्राह्य सञ्चूर्ण्य सम्मील्य प्रपुटेद्रसै:।
स्नुह्यर्काणां रसोनस्य शोषयेदातपेन च।
पिष्ट्वा शर्करवच्चैतदग्निचूर्णं भवेत् खलु ॥ २०२ ॥ (शुक्रनीति, चतुर्थोऽध्यायः - ७.२०१-२०२) [4]
suvarcilavaṇāt pañca palāni gandhakāt palam
antardhūmavipakvārkasnuhyādyaṅgārataḥ palam || 201 ||
śuddhāt saṅgrāhya sañcūrṇya sammīlya prapuṭedrasaiḥ |
snuhyarkārṇāṁ rasonasya śoṣayedātapena ca |
piṣṭvā śarkaravaccaitadagnicūrṇaṃ bhavet khalu || 202 || (Śukranīti, Chapter IV - 7.201-202) [5]
सोड़ा बीस तोला, गन्धक चार तोला, आक, तथा थूहर आदि के धुआँ के साथ जले हुए शुद्ध कोयले चार तोला लेकर सबों को मिलाकर बारीक बुकनी बना लें। फिर उसे आक, थूहर, तथा लहसुन के रस में पका लें। फिर धूप में सुखाकर चूर्ण बना लें। बालू की तरह बुकनी बारुद कहलाती है। [4]
Take five palas of suvarcī salt, one pala of sulphur, and one pala of charcoal from the wood of arka, snuhī, and other trees (burnt in a manner that prevents the escape of smoke, eg: in a closed vessel). Thereafter, they have to be purified, powdered, and mixed together, then dissolved in the juices of snuhī, arka, and garlic, then dried up by heat, and finally powered like sugar. The substance is gunpowder. [5]
In the above-stated verse, saltpetre is called suvarcīlavaṇa. It reveals a detailed method of creating potassium nitrate or saltpeter. The text strengthens the argument that the knowledge behind firebrands is not borrowed or imported; instead, they were locally developed and adapted to cultural requirements.
More detailed evidence emerges from the works such as ‘A History of Hindu Chemistry’ by Prafulla Chandra Ray, where a collection of verses indicate knowledge of chemical compositions involving saltpeter (yavakṣāra), sulphur, and charcoal [6]. Thereby, highlighting how the key component of gunpowder was widely available and used in various applications in Bhārata.
The deliberate variation of ingredients to produce “flashes of starlight” indicates not only technical understanding but also the aesthetic intention behind the chemical composition.
The in-depth chemical understanding of saltpetre and the technical know-how related to turning chemical compositions into fireworks aligns with the broader principles of the Indian Knowledge System, wherein culture and rituals were knowledge in action. The Bhāratīya society directs jñāna not only towards utility but also experience (anubhava). Thus, the aforementioned statement from P.C. Ray’s book is significant for two reasons. Firstly, it demonstrates that pyrotechnics were not limited to utilitarian purposes like warfare. Secondly, it reveals that pyrotechnics were also examined to have an aesthetic component that was used to create a deliberate visual spectacle.
Historical and Literary Evidence
…योगचूर्ण निधिप्रदर्शकमौषधम् । योगवर्त्तिकोपायाञ्जनम् । … (दशकुमारचरितम्, उत्तरपीठिका-द्वितीयोच्छ्वास-कालेटीका - पृ. ७७)[7]
… yogacūrṇa nidhipradarśakamauṣadham | yogavarttikopāyāñjanam |… (Daśakumāracarita, Uttarapīṭhikā-Dvitīyocchvāsa-Kāleṭīkā - p.77) [7]
An Indian literary work, Daśakumāracarita, believed to have been written in the pre-Islamic era, mentions fireworks in its tales. The mention of yogacūrṇa and yogavartikā substances, which mean ‘magic powder’ and ‘magic wick,’ is likely linked to combustible materials [8]. Thus, the text firmly establishes that firebrands and pyrotechnics were common in Bhārata during the 7th century C.E.
The presence of pyrotechnics in Bhārata is further corroborated by the historical accounts of numerous travelers. Abdur Razzaq, who visited the Vijaynagara Empire in the 15th century, presented evidence of how pyrotechnics and firebrands were part of public celebrations of a fair during a period of worship [9]. Duarte Barbosa, who visited Bhārata in the 16th century, spoke of the use of fireworks as part of the marriage ceremony of a young couple in Gujarat [10].
A translation of the historical account by Abdur Razzaq, who visited the Vijayanagara Empire in the 15th century, tells a tale of elaborate displays of pyrotechnics during royal festivals. Similarly, Duarte Barbosa recorded the use of rockets and explosives during wedding ceremonies of common people in Gujarat. These observations and travel accounts add weight to the argument that pyrotechnic displays were well established as a form of celebration across different regions of Bhārata.
Hence, the use of firebrands was not confined to elite social groups or isolated ritual contexts; instead, they were part of public celebrations across Bhārata. Bhāratīya literary sources also mention fireworks in cultural contexts. The mention of yogacūrṇa and yogavartikā substances, likely linked to combustible materials, in Daśakumāracarita establishes the possibility of firebrands being commonly available across Bhārata.
Their accounts show that during the medieval period of Bhārata, the use of pyrotechnics as spectacle was a common practice. Thereby, refuting the assertion that the use of firebrands was a practice of the elite section of society. Moreover, these accounts help distinguish between the introduction and integration of firebrands in Bhārata. Over time, some techniques may have been refined due to the cross-cultural exchanges of knowledge and technology among nations or civilisations; the incorporation of firebrands into temple rituals, weddings, and other celebrations can be categorised as the Indian Knowledge System in action.
Beyond its ritual meaning, firecrackers also form part of a broader festive culture that integrates joy, sound, and spectacle with human expressions of celebration. While some historical accounts suggest that pyrotechnic displays (fireworks) were used in isolation on Dīpāvalī, many historical accounts and literature showcase the use of firebrands in weddings, royal ceremonies, and temple festivals as well.
The materials used in firecrackers are saltpetre, sulphur, charcoal, etc. Commentaries state that these materials were commonly known and used for centuries in Bhārata. The availability of these materials and their integration into festivities indicate that fireworks were neither an imported practice nor a recent inclusion into festivals. It proves that firebrands and their use developed within local contexts in Bhārata.
One of the defining features of the Indian Knowledge System is that culture is knowledge in action. In the case of Dīpāvalī and fireworks, technical know-how is integrated into cultural and social life. The use of firebrands during Dīpāvalī reflects the application and understanding of materials, chemistry, and combustion within a ritual framework. Hence, in Bhārata, science and technology are not isolated domains; they are deeply integrated into rituals, art, and daily life.
The continuity of the traditions demonstrates how rituals and culture evolve with time. In contemporary discourse, the practice of bursting firecrackers during Dīpāvalī is reduced to either its entertainment value or an environmental debate. However, such framing overlooks the deeper cultural and historical dimensions of the practice. Firecrackers, in the Bhāratīya framework, operate at the intersection of ritual, technology, and cultural memory of a millennia-old civilisation.
Modern Relevance
Thus, understanding firecrackers only as a source of entertainment reduces their cultural significance. Within the framework of the Indian Knowledge System, celebration and rituals are not separate domains; and joy itself is an expression of the cultural continuity of Bhārata. Therefore, firecrackers at Dīpāvalī represent not just the illumination of a path in the physical sense, but also the continuity of memory, ritual, and collective identity across generations.
Dīpāvalī is a living expression of the Indian Knowledge System, where knowledge is embodied, enacted, and sustained through culture and practice.
Conclusion
Hence, the availability of technical expertise with proof in texts on experimentation, literary references to firebrands, and historical accounts of foreign travellers present proof that the custom of bursting firecrackers on Dīpāvalī is not an imported ritual or a recent trend. Additionally, the mention of ulkā-dāna rituals in scriptures and paurāṇika texts confirm the rituals linked to bursting firecrackers during the festival of Dīpāvalī. Therefore, the use of firebrands on Dīpāvalī and other festivals in Bhārata falls under the ritual framework to provide cultural continuity while displaying material knowledge and chemical expertise.
Hence, for Bhārata, firebrands are not merely a scientific marvel, a mere religious ritual, or a mere socio-cultural expression. Instead, they are an extension of the Bhāratīya understanding of the metaphysical and physical worlds merging with cosmic reality. Therefore, bursting firecrackers on Dīpāvalī are an expression of knowledge in action, where ritual, material science, and cultural continuity converges to form a civilisational identity.
References
[1] TransLiteral. (n.d.). Kārttikamāsamāhātmya – Adhyāya 9 [Skanda Purāṇa]. https://www.transliteral.org/pages/z241029200756/view
[2] Gita Press. (2020). Skanda Puran (Sarvagya Sharda Peeth, Dig.). https://archive.org/details/skanda-puran-gita-press-gorakhpur/page/n449/mode/2up
[3] Tagare, G. V. (Trans.). (2020). Skanda Purana Section 4 - Kārttikamāsa-māhātmya. Chapter 9 - Rites to be Performed on Vatsadvadashi, […] Dipavali. Wisdom Library. https://www.wisdomlib.org/hinduism/book/the-skanda-purana/d/doc371650.html
[4] Mishra, J. C. (Ed. & Trans.). (2022). Shukra neeti of Shukracharya with Vimala Sanskrit-Hindi commentary: Part 2 (Chaukhamba Sura Bharati Series 274). Chaukhamba Sura Bharati Prakashan. https://archive.org/details/vJzd_shukra-neeti-of-shukracharya-with-vimala-sanskrit-hindi-commentary-by-dr.-jagadi/page/824/mode/2up
[5] Sarkar, B. K. (Trans.). (1914). The Sukraniti (Major B. D. Basu, Ed.; Vol. 13, The Sacred Books of the Hindus). https://archive.org/details/Sukra_Niti/page/n241/mode/2up
[6] Ray, P. C. (1903). A history of Hindu chemistry (Vol. 1). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.39319/page/n319/mode/2up
[7] Kale, M. R. (Ed. & Trans.). (1925). Dasakumaracharita of Dandin: With a commentary, various readings, a literal English translation, explanatory and critical notes and an essay on Dandin. Sharada Krida Press. https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.382496/page/n319/mode/2up
[8] Daṇḍin. (1925). The Dasakumaracarita of Dandin with a commentary (M. R. Kale, Ed.). Gopal Narayan & Co. (Original work published ca. 7th century). https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.553681/page/63/mode/2up
[9] Major, R. H. (Ed. & Trans.). (1857). India in the fifteenth century: Being a collection of narratives of voyages to India, in the century preceding the Portuguese discovery of the Cape of Good Hope. https://archive.org/details/indiainfifteenth00majo/page/n141/mode/2up
[10] Barbosa, D. (1918). The book of Duarte Barbosa: An account of the countries bordering on the Indian Ocean and their inhabitants (M. L. Dames, Ed. & Trans.; Vol. 1). https://ia601900.us.archive.org/12/items/in.ernet.dli.2015.53097/2015.53097.The-Book-Of-Duarte-Bardosa-Vol-i1918_text.pdf
Original Article Information
- Original Article Link: https://www.brhat.in/dhiti/hindus-have-been-bursting-crackers-on-dipavali-for-centuries
- Original Article Details: A historical account of firecracker use in Hindu Diwali celebrations, tracing references from ancient texts to 16th-century festivals, emphasizing its cultural and religious significance.